Министерство образования Республики Беларусь

Учреждение образования

«Гомельский государственный университет

имени Франциска Скорины»

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Факультет иностранных языков

Кафедра английского языка

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LANGUAGE EXPRESSION OF NONVERBAL BEHAVIOUR IN LITERATURE

РЕФЕРАТ

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Исполнитель: ________________ Чернышова А.М.

аспирант кафедры

белорусского языка

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Рецензент: ________________ Сажина Е.В.

к.ф.н., доцент,

зав. кафедрой английского языка

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Гомель 2012

 

 

CONTENTS

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INTRODUCTION	3
1 LANGUAGE. PARALANGUAGE. BODY LANGUAGE. THE BASIC TERMS AND CONCEPTS	4
2 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VERBAL AND NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION	8
3 IMAGE OF MEANS OF NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION IN LITERATURE	11
CONCLUSION	14
LITERATURE	15
GLOSSARY	16
АННОТАЦИЯ

 

 

INTRODUCTION (с новой страницы)

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Language is the primary natural form of the manifestation of man’s thought process. In this sense, language is the sole means and, con­sequently, also a sufficient means for the expression of thought. Also language is the main communication element. Without words it is impossible to present any high-grade human dialogue.

Communication between people are difficult, multilateral process. But even today, most people are still ignorant of the existence of body language, let alone its importance in their lives.

The purpose of this work is to study the results of many analyses of nonverbal communications and what it is used for in the dialogue and in fiction. In this work we demonstrate the definitions of communication as well as the types of communication. And also we will see what role is played by nonverbal communication in fiction.

The study of the body language is conducted at present mainly by anthropologists, linguists, and social psychologists, who refer to this science by the name of kinesics – the study of nonverbal communication or communicative body movements. These include the study of the ways and frequency with which people touch each other during a conversation, and the distance which they keep from each other during interactions. Linguists have regarded gestures as a form of language, perhaps even the predecessor of all human languages, and have studied the various kinds of kinesic communication used by different cultural and social groups, such as stockbrokers, beggars, and the clergy.

The body language forms an indispensable element in social interaction. Facial expression and bodily movements can amplify, modify, confirm, or subvert verbal utterance, expressing meanings which elude or surpass verbal language. Thus it is a key to the inner psychological and emotional state of the performer.

 

 

 1 LANGUAGE. PARALANGUAGE. BODY LANGUAGE. THE BASIC TERMS AND CONCEPTS (с новой страницы)

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Language may refer either to the specifically human capacity for acquiring and using complex systems of communication, or to a specific instance of such a system of complex communication. The scientific study of language in any of its senses is called linguistics.

The approximately 3000 - 6000 languages that are spoken by humans today are the most salient examples, but natural languages can also be based on visual rather than auditory stimulus, for example in sign languages and written language. Codes and other kinds of artificially constructed communication systems such as those used for computer programming can also be called languages. A language in this sense is a system of signs for encoding and decoding information.

Humans acquire language through social interaction in early childhood. The use of language has become deeply entrenched in human culture and, apart from being used to communicate and share information, it also has social and cultural uses.

All languages rely on the process of semiosis to relate a sign with a particular meaning. When described as a system of symbolic communication, language is traditionally seen as consisting of three parts: signs, meanings and a code connecting signs with their meanings. The study of how signs and meanings are combined, used and interpreted is called semiotics. Signs can be composed of sounds, gestures, letters or symbols, depending on whether the language is spoken, signed or written, and they can be combined into complex signs such as words and phrases. When used in communication a sign is encoded and transmitted by a sender through a channel to a receiver who decodes a signal.

Spoken and signed languages contain a phonological system that governs how sounds or visual symbols are used to form sequences known as words or morphemes, and a syntactic system that governs how words and morphemes are used to form phrases and utterances. Written languages use visual symbols to represent the sounds of the spoken languages, but they still require syntactic rules that govern the production of meaning from sequences of words. Languages evolve and diversify over time, and the history of their evolution can be reconstructed by comparing modern languages to determine which traits their ancestral languages must have had for the later stages to have occurred

The word ‘language’ has at least two basic meanings. One definition sees language primarily as the mental faculty that allows humans to undertake linguistic behaviour: to learn languages and produce and understand utterances. This definition stresses the universality of language to all humans and the biological basis of the human capacity for language as a unique development of the human brain.

Another definition sees language as a formal system of signs governed by grammatical rules of combination to communicate meaning. This definition stresses the fact that human languages can be described as closed structural systems consisting of rules that relate particular signs to particular meanings.

Yet another definition sees language as a system of communication that enables humans to cooperate. This definition stresses the social functions of language and the fact that humans use it to express themselves and to manipulate objects in their environment.

Communications can be verbal and nonverbal. Verbal communications are possible only at language use. But people can communicate also without words.

Paralanguage refers to the nonverbal elements of communication used to modify meaning and convey emotion. Paralanguage may be expressed consciously or unconsciously, and it includes the pitch, volume, and, in some cases, intonation of speech. Sometimes the definition is restricted to vocally-produced sounds. The study is known as paralinguistics.

The term ‘paralanguage’ is sometimes used as a cover term for body language, which is not necessarily tied to speech, and paralinguistic phenomena in speech. The latter are phenomena that can be observed in speech but that do not belong to the arbitrary conventional code of language.

The paralinguistic properties of speech play an important role in human speech communication. There are no utterances or speech signals that lack paralinguistic properties, since speech requires the presence of a voice that can be modulated. This voice must have some properties, and all the properties of a voice as such are paralinguistic. However, the distinction linguistic vs. paralinguistic applies not only to speech but to writing and sign language as well, and it is not bound to any sensory modality. Even vocal language has some paralinguistic as well as linguistic properties that can be seen, and even felt.

“We speak with our vocal organs, but we converse with our entire bodies. ... Paralinguistic phenomena occur alongside spoken language, interact with it, and produce together with it a total system of communication. ... The study of paralinguistic behavior is part of the study of conversation: the conversational use of spoken language cannot be properly understood unless paralinguistic elements are taken into account” [1, p. 23]

Paralinguistics is concerned with how words are spoken, i.e. the volume, the intonation, the speed etc. In intercultural communication paralinguistic differences can be responsible for, mostly subconscious or stereotyped, confusion.

All these characteristics differ in various cultures. For example the notion that Americans are talking "too loud" is often interpreted in Europe as aggressive behaviour or Finnish is spoken relatively slowly in comparison to other European languages.

Paralanguage often still name body language. Body language is a form of mental and physical ability of human nonverbal communication, which consists of body posture, gestures, facial expressions, and eye movements. Humans send and interpret such signals almost entirely subconsciously. Kinesics, the scientific study of body language, was pioneered by the anthropologist Ray L. Birdwhistell, who wrote “Introduction to Kinesics”.

Body language may provide clues as to the attitude or state of mind of a person. For example, it may indicate aggression, attentiveness, boredom, pleasure, amusement, and intoxication, among many other cues.

The technique of “reading” people is used frequently. For example, the idea of mirroring body language to put people at ease is commonly used in interviews, personal contact. Body language can show feelings to other people, which works in return for other people. People who show their body language to you can reveal their feelings and meanings. Mirroring the body language of someone else indicates that they are understood. It is important to note that some indicators of emotion (e.g. smiling/laughing when happy, frowning/crying when sad) are largely universal.

Physical expressions like waving, pointing, touching and slouching are all forms of nonverbal communication. The study of body movement and expression is known as kinesics. “Humans move their bodies when communicating because, as research has shown, it helps ease the mental effort when communication is difficult. Physical expressions reveal many things about the person using them. For example, gestures can emphasize a point or relay a message, posture can reveal boredom or great interest, and touch can convey encouragement or caution” [2, p. 32].

More often body language signals about the relation to the interlocutor. One of the most basic and powerful body-language signals is when a person crosses his or her arms across the chest. This can indicate that a person is putting up an unconscious barrier between themselves and others. It can also indicate that the person's arms are cold, which would be clarified by rubbing the arms or huddling. When the overall situation is amicable, it can mean that a person is thinking deeply about what is being discussed. But in a serious or confrontational situation, it can mean that a person is expressing opposition. This is especially so if the person is leaning away from the speaker.

Disbelief is often indicated by averted gaze, or by touching the ear or scratching the chin. When a person is not being convinced by what someone is saying, the attention invariably wanders, and the eyes will stare away for an extended period.

Boredom is indicated by the head tilting to one side, or by the eyes looking straight at the speaker but becoming slightly unfocused.

Deceit or the act of withholding information can sometimes be indicated by touching the face during conversation etc.

Some people use and understand body language differently, or not at all. Interpreting their gestures and facial expressions (or lack thereof) in the context of normal body language usually leads to misunderstandings and misinterpretations (especially if body language is given priority over spoken language). It should also be stated that people from different cultures can interpret body language in different ways.

“Body language is extremely important, particularly in non-literate or semi-literate societies, in which commitment is made through ritual gestures, formal spoken words, and symbolic objects. Gestures transmit secular and spiritual power; they make such transmission public, and give political and religious actions a living image” [3, p. 8].

Additionally, body language is an important ingredient in social differentiation; differences in physical comportment play a significant part in separating social groups from each other, and in fostering feelings of mutual hostility or alienation. This also figures in the creation of cultural differentials between nations. Different languages involve different facial and bodily movements, and there are other, more qualitative judgements and distinctions. Body language reflects differences of gender as well as of class and nationality. Prescriptions for the physical behaviour of women are often different from those of men.

Therefore concepts language, paralanguage, body language need to be considered in interrelation as expanding and supplementing each other

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2 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VERBAL AND NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

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The basis of communication is the interaction between people. Verbal communication is one way for people to communicate face-to-face. Some of the key components of verbal communication are sound, words, speaking, and language. Communication is the activity of conveying information. Communication requires a sender, a message, and an intended recipient, although the receiver need not be present or aware of the sender's intent to communicate at the time of communication; thus communication can occur across vast distances in time and space. Communication requires that the communicating parties share an area of communicative commonality. The communication process is complete once the receiver has understood the message of the sender. Feedback is critical to effective communication between parties.

A variety of verbal and nonverbal means of communicating exists such as body language, eye contact, sign language, paralanguage, haptic communication, chronemics, and media such as pictures, graphics, sound, and writing.

Scientists allocate existence of verbal and nonverbal communications as equally important. Verbal and nonverbal communication techniques are used in many of the same ways to send and receive messages during a conversation. Together they emphasize emotions and draw attention to your point of view. While these techniques are different in their delivery, they share certain unique similarities.

The differences between verbal and nonverbal communication is minimal. Verbal and nonverbal communication share something extraordinarily in common. Both reveal emotion. Verbal communication can be conveyed in a somber, happy, unhappy, angry, informative or loving mood or attitude, through words. Nonverbal communication can express the same sentiments through gestures, facial expression and physical actions.

Verbal and nonverbal communication are best when used together. Without expression accompanying verbal communication, we can become bored or lose interest in what we are hearing. Gesturing is another way to communicate nonverbally. Gestures help get the speaker's point across, both verbally and nonverbally. Nonverbal communications also include a mimicry, visual contact, position of a body, a pose and other various movements of a body.

Verbal and nonverbal communication techniques are used in many of the same ways to send and receive messages during a conversation. Together they emphasize emotions and draw attention to your point of view. While these techniques are different in their delivery, they share certain unique similarities.

Both verbal and nonverbal communication requires interpretation. This interpretation can yield a message significantly different from the original gesture or statement based on the receiver’s perception. The mood of the receiver is also significant. A positive mindset in the receiver yields a significantly different message than a negative mindset. Personal experience adds another element of interpretive static as the receiver’s experiences can alter the reception of the message.

Verbal communication is manipulated through the use of lies. Nonverbal communication allows for the same sort of manipulation by using specific gestures that convey an inaccurate emotion – for example, reassuring gestures or fake smiles meant to relax those around you.

People use both verbal and nonverbal communication to express an emotional state, and these are often used together for this purpose. Simple emotions such as happiness and sadness are simple to convey using either medium, but more complex emotions such as confusion, nervousness and self-doubt are also possible. You can also unintentionally convey emotions using either medium. Nervousness, for instance, shows both through broken speech patterns and stuttering, but also through gestures like wringing your hands or popping your knuckles.

Verbal speech patterns identify specifics about your life, such as where you grew up and your level of education. Nonverbal communication is more subtle but does the same thing. If you grew up in a specific region or country, you will use certain words that are indicative of that area and use specific gestures that are not widely utilized elsewhere. Your level of education is evident in the sophistication of your word choice but also in the utilization of professional speech gestures that are gained though training.

All forms of communication can be categorized as either verbal or nonverbal. In turn, both verbal and nonverbal communication can be subdivided into either vocal or nonvocal. Much of the communication that takes place between people is verbal; that is, it is based on language. Verbal communication of the vocal category includes spoken language. Nonvocal verbal communication involves written communication as well as communication that is transmitted through transmitted through sign language, finger spelling, Braille, or other similar alternatives to verbal language. Communication has been called the transfer of meaning from one mind to another.

While verbal communication is much studied and is the focus of much applied attention in areas ranging from journalism to governance to entertainment, the fact is that human beings communicate more through nonverbal means. Nonverbal communication is hugely important in human interaction.

Some linguists identify an aspect of nonverbal communication called paralanguage. This refers to a range of nonlinguistic elements of speech such as facial expressions gestures the use of time and space and so on. However most linguists adhere to stricter categorization. Commonly the study of nonverbal communication is divided into several specific categories.

Kinesics (simplistically called body language) deals with physical movement sometimes called affective displays. This study applies traditional linguistic principles to the body as a whole or to specific parts particularly the face hands and arms. It also deals with posture in standing and sitting as well as with eye and facial expressions such as the arching of eyebrows or rolling of the eyes.

Occulesics is closely related to kinesics. Occulesics deals with eye behavior as an element of communication. Some aspects of occulesics deal with a static or fixed gaze versus dynamic eye movement. This so-called eye contact is the subject of much interpretation by the observer making it difficult to predict its exact communication impact.

Proxemics involves the social use of space in a communication situation.

Haptics focuses on touching as an element of communication, indicating both the type of touch as well as its frequency and intensity.

Vocalics (also called paralanguage) deals with vocal cues, more accurately referred to as the nonphonemic qualities of language. These include accent, loudness, tempo, pitch, cadence, rate of speech, nasality and tone, insofar as these convey meaning. Vocalics is sometimes subdivided into several categories. Vocal characterizers include laughing, crying, yawning, and so on.

Chronemics deals with the use of time as an element of communication. Formal time is measured in minutes, hours, days, and so on. Informal time is measured relative to seasons, social customs, lunar cycles, etc. Chronemics involves specifics such as punctuality.

Olfactics is an aspect of nonverbal communication dealing with smells. Though not widely studied from a communication perspective, olfactics might include the use of perfumes and spices. It is associated with proxemics in that, the closer people are in communication, the more likely that the smell will be relevant.

Nonverbal communications can be used with the different purposes:

- to repeat and reinforce what is said verbally;

- to manage and regulate the interaction among participants in the communication exchange;

- to express emotion beyond the verbal element;

- to convey relational messages of affection, power, dominance, respect, and so on;

- to promote honest communication by detecting deception or conveying suspicion.

Nonverbal communication is important not only at dialogue, but also are studied in literature. Nonverbal dialogue is transferred in fiction by means of various lexical units and designs used by the author. Linguists study nonverbal communications as a semiotics part. People have tried to extend the possibility of communication beyond the limits of speech. The way to communicate beyond speech is to communicate through signs. Signs are nonverbal units of expression. Semiotics identifies three types of signs: symbols, indices and icons. A symbol stands in place of an object. It may be a physical object such as a flag standing for patriotism and national pride. An index points to something beyond itself. An index is sometimes called a natural sign because the relationship between the word and what it signifies is natural, such as smoke being an indexical sign of fire. An icon is a representation of an object that produces a mental image of the object represented.

Linguists study a problem of existence of nonverbal communication means in fiction. They reveal semantics of nonverbal communication between characters and necessity of its use for the text. Scientists try to investigate functions, semantics and structure of nonverbal units used in fiction.

 

 

 

CONCLUSION (с новой страницы)

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The body language is both the most basic fundamental form of expression used by human beings to communicate with one another, and at the same time a part of a highly sophisticated and culturally specific system of coded signals in which bodily and facial movement play at least as important a part as verbal utterance.

Having analysed the given material about nonverbal communications we can come to a conclusion that verbal and nonverbal communication behaviour can not be separated from each other.

Though we say that nonverbal communication has a cultural meaning we also know that the body language has universal components and there are signs and gestures than do not vary from culture to culture. Though we say that nonverbal behaviour can be interpreted wrongly, we also can say that without it people would misunderstand each other much more frequently.

And though we say that in fiction verbal behaviour is much more important, because the nonverbal behaviour is an important component for understanding characters of heroes described by the author in the text

In our opinion not only in the context of fiction but also in our everyday life nonverbal communication can be considered more relevant than irrelevant, because it helps to understand each other more frequently than brings to misunderstanding.

 

 

 

  

LITERATURE (с новой страницы)

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1. Abercrombie, D. Elements of general phonetics / D. Abercrombie. –Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1967. – 180 p.
2. Engleberg, Isa Working in Groups: Communication Principles and Strategies / Isa Engleberg, Dianna Wynn. – My Communication Kit Series, 2006. – 137 p.
3. Pease, A. Body language / А. Pease. – Camel Publishing Company, 1981. – 202 p.
4. Mcdougall, W. The group mind / W. Mcdougall. –Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1927. – 134 p.
5. McKay, Matthew. Messages: The Communication Skills Book / Matthew McKay, Martha Davis, Patrick Fanning. – New Harbinger Publications, 2009. – 358 p.
6. Body Language in Literature / B. Korte. –Toronto and Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 1997. – 329 p.
7. Birdwhistell, R.L. Kinesics and context. Essays on body motion communication / R.L. Birdwhistell. –Philadelphia: Univ. of Pensylvania press, 1970. – 338 p.
8. Cook, M. Verbal substitutes for visual signals in interaction / M. Cook, M.C. Lalljee // Semiotica, 6. – № 3. – 1972. – P. 212–222.
9. Johnson, H.G. Communicative body movements: American emblems / H.G. Johnson, P. Ekman, W.V. Friesen // Semiotica, 15. – № 4. – 1975. – P. 335–353.

 

 

 GLOSSARY (с новой страницы)

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A
1	actually kinesics	собственно кинесика
2	aggression	агрессия
3	alternative to verbal language	альтернатива словесному языку
4	amusement	развлечение
5	ancestral language	наследственный язык
6	arching of eyebrows	изгиб бровей
7	attentiveness	внимательность
8	auditory stimulus	слуховой стимул
B
9	balance	баланс
10	basic functions	основные функции
11	basis	основание
12	body language	язык тела
13	body posture	положение тела
14	bodily movements	телодвижения
15	boredom	скука
С
16	categorization	классификация
17	category	категория
18	closed structural systems	закрытые структурные системы
19	clues	подсказки
20	combination	комбинация
21	communication	коммуникация
22	communicative commonality	коммуникативная общность
23	communication element	коммуникационный элемент
24	communication situation	коммуникационная ситуация
25	communicative body movements	коммуникативные движения тела
26	complex signs	сложные знаки
27	concept	понятие
28	conversation	беседа
29	conscious behaviour	сознательное поведение
30	cooperate	сотрудничать
31	cultural groups	культурные группы
32	cultural uses	культурное использование
33	communicating parties	общающиеся стороны

АННОТАЦИЯ (с новой страницы)

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Едва ли не большую часть времени мы общаемся, умение это делать – пожалуй, самое важное в жизни.

Как это ни странно на первый взгляд, три четверти информации о нашем собеседнике, о его истинных чувствах и намерениях мы черпаем не из того, что он говорит, а непосредственно наблюдая за едва уловимыми деталями его поведения. Иначе говоря, межличностные коммуникации в основном осуществляются за счет невербальных средств – параллельного, и часто более богатого языка общения, элементами которого являются не слова, а мимика и жестикуляция, пространственные и временные рамки, интонационные и темпоритмические характеристики речи, символические коммуникативные знаки.

Невербальная коммуникация – форма общения, которая представляет собой поведение, сигнализирующее о характере взаимодействия и эмоциональных состояниях общающихся индивидов. Является дополнительным источником информации к собственно вербальному сообщению.

Жесты, мимика и интонационные модели высказывания являются неотъемлемой и важной частью любого коммуникативного акта, в котором собеседники находятся друг от друга на близком расстоянии и поддерживают визуальный контакт.

Невербальные действия, сопровождающие речь участников коммуникативного акта, обоюдно сообщают об их социальном статусе, психологическом настрое и их эмоциональной вовлеченности в момент общения.

Часто они совершенно расходятся с речью, иногда они являются единственной реакцией собеседника на чье-либо высказывание, и даже полное отсутствие каких-либо действий или слов также может обладать определенным значением.

В данном реферате на тему «The language expression of nonverbal behaviour in the literature» сделана попытка осветить роль невербальной коммуникации как в живом общении людей, так и в художественном тексте. В реферате отмечены основные лингвистические понятия, которые формируют тему невербального общения в жизни и в литературе. В данной работе описаны имманентные характеристики таких понятий как язык, параязык и язык тела, освещается взаимосвязь и взаимодействие этих понятий.

В качестве отдельного аспекта рассмотрения вынесены понятия вербальной и невербальной коммуникации, и определена роль каждого из них в процессе общения. Описаны уникальные общие черты вербальной и невербальной коммуникации. Акцент делается на то, что невербальное общение является самодостаточным и очень часто не нуждается в словесном подтверждении. Очень многие ученые утверждают, что невербальная коммуникация все же выступает в качестве дополнительной к вербальной, но и отказаться от нее полностью нельзя, а точнее не возможно. Как отмечают авторы многих работ, использование невербальных средств общения помогает в большинстве случаев выразить эмоциональное состояние человека, его чувства и переживания, и это показано ими на примерах, взятых из художественных текстов.

В реферате затронуты некоторые разделы невербальной коммуникации, которые исследуют различные ее элементы. Например, кинесика изучает движения тела, оккулесика – контакт глазами, проксемика исследует пространственное расстояние между собеседниками, гаптика – прикосновения во всех его проявлениях и т. д. Также исследователями были выявлены цели, с которыми используются невербальные средства общения.

В работе также рассматривается вопрос об изображении средств невербальной коммуникации в художественном тексте. Невербальные единицы, используемые в текстах и названные нами кинемами, представлены в следующих структурных группах: кинесика, оккулесика и гаптика. Среди кинем выделяют: изобразительные, указательные и эмблематические кинемы, которые сопоставляются с иконическими, индексальными и символическими знаками в семиотике. Ситуативная обусловленность выбора средств коммуникативного поведения позволяет говорить о стилистической дифференциации значимых движений. С точки зрения стилистической маркированности выделяют стилистически возвышенные, стилистически нейтральные и стилистически сниженные кинемы.

В качестве основных функций кинесических компонентов в художественном тексте исследователи обозначают типы взаимодействия вербальной и невербальной составляющих: дублирование, субституция, контрадикция и регулирование.

Таким образом, авторы многих работ приходят к выводу, что использование невербальных средств общения очень важно при любом коммуникативном акте. Следует отметить, что писатели, стараясь сделать свое произведение наиболее приближенным к жизни и тем самым к читателю, включают в свои тексты для описания общения героев и невербальную составляющую. Поэтому автору художественного текста приходится тщательнейшим образом продумывать каждую деталь при написании своего произведения. Автор должен быть очень изобретательным и одновременно внимательным, чтобы максимально точно отобразить коммуникативную ситуацию используя в своем тексте для характеристики самих героев или определенной ситуации, в которой они оказались, вербальные и невербальные средства в их взаимодействии.